英文原文
Ego Development Theory in Volunteer Management
INTRODUCTION
Volunteer motivation is a constant concern for the volunteer administrator. There is the initial motivation to volunteer on which the manager may capitalize in order to successfully recruit volunteers for the program. There is also the motivation for the volunteer to continue in the volunteer position, which may not necessarily be the same as the initial motivation. The motivation to continue, specifically the internal motivation, is of particular concern to the volunteer administrator.
Marlene Wilson revolutionized the field of volunteer management in 1976 with the publication of her book, The Effective Management of Volunteer Programs. Wilson's intention was to synthesize available information from the fields of business and management, behavioral sciences, and communications into the newly emerging profession of volunteer management. This synthesis of disciplines was the first book of its sort written for volunteer administrators. Consequently, many later writers dealing with volunteer motivation have drawn heavily from her ideas.
In explaining the motivation of volunteers, both to volunteer initially and to continue volunteering, Wilson drew from the work of several behavioral scientists, specifically applying their theories to volunteers and volunteer management. These theories have provided Wilson and other writers in volunteer management (Freeman, 1981; Taylor and Wild, 1984) with a basis for training, job design, and management ideas which will encourage volunteers to continue in their volunteer positions.
However, the theories do not provide an adequate explanation for the origin of needs and motives which they describe, nor do they provide an altogether adequate basis for understanding a volunteer's internal motivation and how or why it may change during the course of a volunteering experience.
MOTIVATION THEORIES IN THE VOLUNTEER LITERATURE
Probably the most widely known of the theories is Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which proposes a progression of levels of need: physiological (the most basic), safety, social, esteem and, finally, self-actualization, towards which all people theoretically are striving. Among Maslow's comments on how the hierarchy functions is the idea that a need which has been met is no longer a motivator. He also says that if, after a person has moved up on the hierarchy, a basic need is not met, the person will regress on the hierarchy to the level of the unmet need.
Another theory which Wilson considered, and which has been widely used in volunteer management, is Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory. Herzberg distinguishes two separate categories of motivational factors which affect people and how they work. The first, which he calls hygiene factors, are those which are related to the person's work environment, for example, money, status, supervision, and working conditions. These factors in themselves do not motivate people, but their absence serves as a demotivator. The second category of Herzberg's factors are motivators. These are the satisfying factors which relate to the job itself, such as achievement, recognition for accomplishment, increased responsibility, and growth and development.
The work of McClelland and Atkinson receives the greatest amount of Wilson's attention and is also highly utilized in volunteer literature. These psychologists have identified three distinct motives which affect a person's behavior: the need for achievement, the need for power, and the need for affiliation. They have identified characteristics and behavior patterns which are associated with each motive. McClelland, in later work, amended the three categories by splitting the need for power into two different forms-a positive type which he calls socialized power (e.g., when power is used to empower others), and a negative type called personalized power (in which power and control are used on others).
Townsend (1971) and Wilson point out that the needs in the first three levels of Maslow's hierarchy have been met by most of today's work force in the United States, both paid and non-paid. This leaves two very broad levels of need-esteem and self-actualization-with which to attempt to understand how to retain a volunteer.
Neither Herzberg nor McClelland and Atkinson are dealing with a hierarchy in their theories (although Herzberg's "motivators" seem to be more in effect in the upper levels of Maslow's hierarchy, and hygiene factors in the lower levels). McClelland and Atkinson provide an interpretation of why people act as they do, based on a type of need. But the three types of need they discuss do not offer an explanation for why a person is in one of the categories, why he/she has this particular need at this time, or why the person's need may change over the course of a volunteer experience. If a volunteer is placed in a job based on the current personal need, as some writers suggest doing, what will happen if the person develops a different need? How do we account for this change? Is this one of the reasons we lose volunteers who were apparently satisfied for a period of time?
There is another way to understand a volunteer's needs and motives: by considering the person in terms of his/her individual development. The developmental process does not end when a person reaches "adulthood." It is a lifelong process. One of the dimensions of adult development which can be very helpful in volunteer management is that of ego development. By ego, it is not meant Freud's concept of ego which is in unconscious conflict with the super-ego or id, nor is this the popular notion of ego referring to egotism or conceit. Instead, the consideration here is the aspect of the personality that "keeps things together" by striving for coherence and assigning meaning to experience (Weathersby, 1981, p. 52).
Ego provides a frame of reference that structures one's world and searches for the deeper meaning of experiences (Marienau and Chickering, 1982). The leading theorist of ego development, Loevinger (1976), considers ego to be not just a personality trait, but a master trait second only to intelligence in determining an individual's pattern of responses to situations (Weathersby, p. 52).
Loevinger describes this master personality trait as a hierarchy of stages: Pre-Social, Symbiotic, and Impulsive are the Pre-Conventional stages usually found in children. Most adults are in the next stages: Self-Protective, Conformist, Self-Aware, Conscientious, Individualistic, Autonomous, and Integrated.
Each stage is defined by the characteristics that are most predominant at that stage, although these same characteristics may be present, to a greater or lesser degree, at all stages (Oja, 1980, p. 21). The total pattern of characteristics must be present, however, in order to adequately define a stage. The stages of ego development are not tied to given ages, as are stages in the life-age developmental theories which were popularized in the 1970's.
Each stage in the sequence is more complex than the previous one, and none can be skipped in the course of development. Individuals may stabilize at certain stages and, consequently, not develop beyond those stages. In the general population of adults, there are representatives of each stage, who are "characterized in terms of the features specific to the stages at which they stabilized." (Oja, p. 21).
A volunteer administrator who becomes familiar with the characteristics of the different ego stages as described by Loevinger and with the characteristics and behavior patterns which McClelland and Atkinson describe for each type of motivation will begin to see a correlation between ego stages and the motives which McClelland and Atkinson describe. There is also a correlation between Loevinger's ego stages and Maslow's levels of need. However, Maslow considers his hierarchy as a progression leading to the highest state of psychological health, self-actualization. This contradicts Loevinger's view that health and ego development are not the same. A higher ego stage is not necessarily a better one-it represents a more complex understanding of the world. The person is not necessarily happier or better adjusted; there are happy people at all stages.
SOME TYPICAL VOLUNTEERS IN THE STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT
Ray is a long-time volunteer in a large hospital. He has a role of authority in his program, acting as a middle manager now. He tends not to trust people, and is concerned that they will take advantage of him. His relationships, therefore, are manipulative. He uses his power to control others, and believes that the rules are to be used for his own advantage. This "negative-power" motivation is characteristic of the Self-Protective ego stage.
Alice volunteers at the local children's museum. She had been a housewife for many years when she decided it would be good to acquire work credentials that will help her find a paying job when her children are older. She is friendly with everyone (even though she may not like each person) and she wants everyone to get along. A feeling of belonging is most important to Alice, and she feels strongly that rules and procedures (which others have devised) should be followed. She is also very concerned with her appearance. Alice is at the Conformist ego stage, which is related to an affiliation motivation.
Liz is at the Self-Aware transition level, which is between the Conformist stage and the following Conscientious stage. After working many years as a volunteer leader with a youth group, while apparently at the Conformist stage, Liz was chosen to represent her state at a special national program intended to cultivate middle managers in the volunteer program structure. She received training at national headquarters in Washington (traveling by air for the first time in her life), and returned to her home to prepare exhibits and train other leaders in the state. Liz's self-confidence is growing markedly, and although she is still concerned with getting approval from other leaders, she is beginning to have self-evaluated standards for behavior.
Robert is on the Board of Directors of the local United Way chapter. He takes his responsibilities seriously, and particularly enjoys tackling new problems that arise in the fund-raising efforts. He also enjoys developing long-term goals for the organization. Because he has high standards, he enjoys doing things well. He thinks for himself, but is sensitive to the opinions and feelings of other members of the group. Robert's achievement motivation is an outgrowth of his Conscientious ego stage.
Tim is a volunteer tutor in a county-wide literacy program. In the past few years, he has become disillusioned with many of the organizations to which he belongs. Lately, he has been reconsidering what "shoulds" need to control his life. Tim is a very competent person, with high standards. He wants to make a contribution, but wants his contribution to reflect his real values and his uniqueness. Becoming a literacy volunteer was a direct result of his new line of thinking. Tim has reached the Individualistic stage. He is less concerned with achievement and ideals now, and more with interpersonal relationships and how much they mean to his life. He can see past rules and procedures to the real purpose of an activity.
Sarah became a volunteer at the City Library when she could not locate an artifact in the historical collection and subsequently learned that staffing help was desperately needed to keep up the collection. Sarah is an introspective person who enjoys working alone for several hours each week with the dusty old books and papers. She is well liked by other volunteers and staff members because she respects people and is very sensitive to their feelings and needs. She is working on deepening her understanding of the world and of herself. Sarah is at the Autonomous stage of ego development.
The highest stage in the ego development scheme, the Integrated stage, is rare, according to Loevinger. It contains the strong sense of identity which is found at the Autonomous level, and also includes "the capacity to reconcile conflicting demands, to renounce the unattainable, and to truly cherish individuality" (Oja, p. 24).
IMPLICATIONS FOR VOLUNTEER MANAGERS
It is important to recognize that by using ego development stages as a guideline for understanding the volunteer's motivation, we are able to consider motivation as an aspect of a larger picture: the total personality. We are also able to account for changes in the volunteer's motivation by understanding that it may not be just the motivation which has undergone transition, but a major aspect of the volunteer's personality. Why does the volunteer who so obviously had an "affiliation motivation" when placed initially now appear to be operating from an "achievement motivation?" It is not merely a shift in motivation, but an indication of the on-going development of the individual, a transition from the Conformist ego stage to the Conscientious.
By being aware of ego development theory, and not concentrating on motivation alone, the manager will have a better understanding of additional internal factors which are influencing the volunteer's perceptions, attitudes and behaviors.
Not everyone continues along on a constant course of development. Although Maslow theorizes that all individuals strive for self-actualization, research in ego development has produced evidence that many individuals stabilize at certain stages (Oja, p. 21). There is also research evidence which reports that the Self-Aware ego level is the most predominant adult ego level (Hauser, 1976; Loevinger).
An understanding of ego development will help the volunteer manager understand those volunteers who have stabilized at a stage and provide supports for them. The manager will also better understand volunteers who are in transition and who need appropriate challenges in order to help them in the process of development. These supports and challenges can take many different forms.
TRAINING
Of course, it is not possible for all of a volunteer's training situations to be perfectly suited to his/her ego stage. But in planning the types of in-service training and education which can be available to support or challenge an on-the-job volunteer, greater successes will be achieved by acknowledging that different types of learning experience are appropriate to the different ego stages.
For example, one well-known theory of adult learning, andragogy, includes as one of its premises that adults learn best in situations where the teacher/trainer takes the role of "facilitator" rather than "giver of knowledge." The lecture mode is strongly discouraged unless necessary. Self-study and self-assessment are important instructional methods. However, ego development theory suggests that an adult learner/volunteer at the Self-Protective or Conformist stage will perceive the trainer as an external authority who is a presenter of pre-packaged or highly structured information. It is the volunteer at higher stages who will be supported by training which takes the form of discussion groups or self-study, with the trainer acting as a resource person.
Any group of volunteers at a training event will probably include a cross-section of ego stages. This would not permit training design to be completely appropriate for each individual, and it would be unrealistic to expect that this would be possible. The point is that trainers of volunteers should be familiar with the different ego stages and consider the training needs of volunteers in accordance with ego stage. This may mean offering a variety of training opportunities, in order to make available appropriate types of learning situations in which the variety of volunteers may participate.
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Management techniques should also vary with the individual volunteer. Considering all members of a volunteer corps to be the same "type" of volunteer is just as unreasonable as looking at all members of paid staff in terms of their job titles, be they "secretary" or "executive director." Volunteers (as well as paid staff) at different ego stages have different needs; supervisory supports and challenges are different for each stage.
A volunteer at the Autonomous stage, an introspective person who works well alone, dislikes superficial group activities, and respects people for themselves, will have a difficult time in a rigid organizational system of rules and regulations which reflects an authoritative, Self-Protective style. In fact, this conflict may be too extreme for the volunteer to work in any capacity. In the same way, a Conformist-stage volunteer, who is concerned with impressing "significant others," such as supervisors, and who feels strongly about following the rules and procedures which have been set by others, will need strong support from the manager if asked to serve as a representative on a decision-making committee. Without this support and encouragement to participate, this volunteer will likely follow the voice of the committee's leader.
Consider again the example of Liz, the youth group volunteer leader described previously. When chosen as a key leader, she was at the Conformist stage. Her ongoing development and subsequent transition to the next ego stage were accomplished in several ways. When asked to participate in the key leader program, she was motivated to accept by a desire to impress the professional staff with whom she had worked for so long, and to obtain recognition from her fellow leaders. However, the program challenged her into transition by developing her sense of achievement and by forcing her to set goals in her project and to take risks and gain self-confidence. Much of this was accomplished only because of the strong and continuous encouragement of her volunteer manager.
CONCLUSION
Ego development theory adds a new dimension to the understanding of volunteer motivation. This more complete understanding, which takes into account developmental transitions and the corresponding motivational changes in volunteers, can help the volunteer manager create a working situation, including in-service training opportunities, which is supportive of volunteers at differing stages of ego development and, where appropriate, promote the volunteers' ongoing development.
We cannot offer volunteers the same benefits and incentives we offer paid workers. We can offer a benefit which, though intangible, is invaluable-an opportunity for personal development.
中文翻译
自我发展理论在志愿者管理中的应用
引言
志愿者动机是志愿者管理者持续关注的问题。管理者可以利用初始的志愿者动机来成功招募项目志愿者。同时，志愿者继续留在志愿者岗位的动机可能与初始动机不同。志愿者管理者特别关注持续动机，尤其是内部动机。
Marlene Wilson于1976年出版了《志愿者项目的有效管理》一书，彻底改变了志愿者管理领域。Wilson的意图是将商业和管理、行为科学以及传播学领域的可用信息综合到新兴的志愿者管理专业中。这种跨学科综合是第一部为志愿者管理者撰写的此类书籍。因此，许多后来研究志愿者动机的作家都大量借鉴了她的观点。
在解释志愿者的动机（包括初始志愿和持续志愿）时，Wilson借鉴了几位行为科学家的研究，特别是将他们的理论应用于志愿者和志愿者管理。这些理论为Wilson和其他志愿者管理作家（Freeman, 1981; Taylor and Wild, 1984）提供了培训、工作设计和管理理念的基础，以鼓励志愿者继续留在他们的志愿者岗位上。
然而，这些理论并未充分解释它们所描述的需求和动机的起源，也没有为理解志愿者的内部动机及其在志愿服务过程中如何或为何变化提供完全充分的基础。
志愿者文献中的动机理论
最广为人知的理论可能是马斯洛的需求层次理论，它提出了需求层次的递进：生理需求（最基本的）、安全需求、社交需求、尊重需求，最后是自我实现需求，理论上所有人都在追求自我实现。马斯洛关于需求层次如何运作的观点之一是，已满足的需求不再是激励因素。他还指出，如果一个人在需求层次上提升后，基本需求未得到满足，他将退回到未满足需求的层次。
Wilson考虑的另一个在志愿者管理中广泛使用的理论是赫茨伯格的激励-保健理论。赫茨伯格区分了两类影响人们及其工作方式的激励因素。第一类他称为保健因素，与个人的工作环境相关，例如金钱、地位、监督和工作条件。这些因素本身并不激励人，但它们的缺失会起到去激励作用。赫茨伯格的第二类因素是激励因素。这些是与工作本身相关的满足因素，如成就、对成就的认可、责任增加以及成长和发展。
McClelland和Atkinson的研究受到Wilson最多关注，也在志愿者文献中高度应用。这些心理学家确定了三种影响个人行为的动机：成就需求、权力需求和归属需求。他们识别了与每种动机相关的特征和行为模式。McClelland在后来的研究中将权力需求分为两种不同形式来修正这三个类别：一种积极类型，他称之为社会化权力（例如，当权力被用来赋予他人权力时），以及一种消极类型，称为个性化权力（其中权力和控制被用于他人）。
Townsend（1971）和Wilson指出，马斯洛需求层次的前三个层次的需求已被当今美国大多数劳动力（包括有偿和无偿）所满足。这留下了两个非常广泛的需求层次——尊重和自我实现——来试图理解如何留住志愿者。
赫茨伯格以及McClelland和Atkinson在他们的理论中都没有处理层次结构（尽管赫茨伯格的“激励因素”似乎在马斯洛需求层次的上层更有效，而保健因素在较低层次）。McClelland和Atkinson基于需求类型解释了人们为何如此行事。但他们讨论的三种需求类型并未解释一个人为何处于某个类别，为何他/她此时有这种特定需求，或者为何个人的需求可能在志愿服务过程中发生变化。如果根据当前个人需求为志愿者安排工作，如一些作家建议的那样，如果这个人发展出不同的需求会发生什么？我们如何解释这种变化？这是否是我们失去那些在一段时间内显然满意的志愿者的原因之一？
还有另一种理解志愿者需求和动机的方式：通过考虑个人的个体发展。发展过程在一个人达到“成年”时并未结束。这是一个终身过程。成人发展的一个维度——自我发展——在志愿者管理中非常有帮助。这里的自我不是指弗洛伊德的自我概念（与超我或本我无意识冲突），也不是指自我主义或自负的流行概念。相反，这里考虑的是人格中通过追求连贯性和赋予经验意义来“保持事物一致”的方面（Weathersby, 1981, p. 52）。
自我提供了一个参考框架，构建个人的世界并寻找经验的深层意义（Marienau and Chickering, 1982）。自我发展的主要理论家Loevinger（1976）认为自我不仅是一种人格特质，而且是仅次于智力的主导特质，决定个人对情境的反应模式（Weathersby, p. 52）。
Loevinger将这种主导人格特质描述为一个阶段层次：前社会阶段、共生阶段和冲动阶段是通常见于儿童的前习俗阶段。大多数成年人处于以下阶段：自我保护阶段、顺从阶段、自我意识阶段、尽责阶段、个人主义阶段、自主阶段和整合阶段。
每个阶段由该阶段最突出的特征定义，尽管这些相同特征可能在不同程度上存在于所有阶段（Oja, 1980, p. 21）。然而，必须存在特征的完整模式才能充分定义一个阶段。自我发展阶段不像1970年代流行的生命年龄发展理论那样与特定年龄绑定。
序列中的每个阶段都比前一个更复杂，并且在发展过程中不能跳过任何阶段。个体可能在某些阶段稳定下来，因此不会超越这些阶段发展。在一般成年人口中，每个阶段都有代表，他们“以其稳定阶段的特定特征为特征”（Oja, p. 21）。
熟悉Loevinger描述的不同自我阶段特征以及McClelland和Atkinson描述的每种动机类型的特征和行为模式的志愿者管理者将开始看到自我阶段与McClelland和Atkinson描述的动机之间的相关性。Loevinger的自我阶段与马斯洛的需求层次之间也存在相关性。然而，马斯洛将他的层次结构视为通向最高心理状态——自我实现——的进程。这与Loevinger的观点相矛盾，即健康与自我发展并不相同。更高的自我阶段不一定更好——它代表了对世界更复杂的理解。这个人不一定更快乐或适应得更好；所有阶段都有快乐的人。
自我发展阶段中的一些典型志愿者
Ray是一家大型医院的长期志愿者。他在项目中担任权威角色，现在担任中层管理者。他倾向于不信任人，并担心别人会利用他。因此，他的关系是操纵性的。他利用权力控制他人，并认为规则应被用于自己的优势。这种“消极权力”动机是自我保护自我阶段的特征。
Alice在当地儿童博物馆做志愿者。她做了多年家庭主妇后，决定获取工作资历，以便孩子长大后能找到有偿工作。她对每个人都很友好（即使她可能不喜欢每个人），并希望每个人和睦相处。归属感对Alice最重要，她强烈认为应遵循规则和程序（由他人制定）。她也非常关心自己的外表。Alice处于顺从自我阶段，这与归属动机相关。
Liz处于自我意识过渡水平，介于顺从阶段和随后的尽责阶段之间。作为青年团体的志愿者领导者工作多年后，显然处于顺从阶段的Liz被选为代表她的州参加一个旨在培养志愿者项目结构中层管理者的特殊国家项目。她在华盛顿的国家总部接受了培训（第一次乘飞机旅行），然后返回家乡准备展览并培训州内的其他领导者。Liz的自信心显著增长，尽管她仍然关心获得其他领导者的认可，但她开始有了自我评估的行为标准。
Robert是当地联合劝募分会董事会成员。他认真对待自己的责任，特别喜欢解决筹款工作中出现的新问题。他也喜欢为组织制定长期目标。因为他有高标准，他喜欢把事情做好。他独立思考，但对团队其他成员的意见和感受敏感。Robert的成就动机是他尽责自我阶段的产物。
Tim是全县扫盲项目的志愿者导师。过去几年，他对所属的许多组织感到失望。最近，他一直在重新考虑哪些“应该”需要控制他的生活。Tim是一个非常能干的人，有高标准。他想做出贡献，但希望他的贡献反映他的真实价值观和独特性。成为扫盲志愿者是他新思路的直接结果。Tim已达到个人主义阶段。他现在较少关心成就和理想，更多关心人际关系及其对他生活的意义。他能超越规则和程序看到活动的真正目的。
Sarah在无法找到历史收藏中的一件文物后，得知急需人员帮助维护收藏，于是成为市图书馆的志愿者。Sarah是一个内省的人，喜欢每周独自工作几个小时处理布满灰尘的旧书和文件。她受到其他志愿者和工作人员的喜爱，因为她尊重人，对他们的感受和需求非常敏感。她正在努力加深对世界和自己的理解。Sarah处于自我发展的自主阶段。
根据Loevinger的说法，自我发展方案中的最高阶段——整合阶段——是罕见的。它包含了自主阶段中发现的强烈认同感，还包括“调和冲突需求、放弃不可实现目标以及真正珍视个性的能力”（Oja, p. 24）。
对志愿者管理者的启示
重要的是要认识到，通过使用自我发展阶段作为理解志愿者动机的指导，我们能够将动机视为更大图景——整个人格——的一个方面。我们也能够通过理解可能不仅仅是动机发生了变化，而是志愿者人格的主要方面发生了变化来解释志愿者动机的变化。为什么最初显然有“归属动机”的志愿者现在似乎从“成就动机”出发行事？这不仅仅是动机的转变，而是个人持续发展的迹象，是从顺从自我阶段到尽责阶段的过渡。
通过了解自我发展理论，而不只关注动机，管理者将更好地理解影响志愿者感知、态度和行为的其他内部因素。
并非每个人都沿着持续的发展道路前进。尽管马斯洛理论认为所有个体都追求自我实现，但自我发展的研究证据表明许多个体在某些阶段稳定下来（Oja, p. 21）。还有研究报告称，自我意识自我水平是最主要的成人自我水平（Hauser, 1976; Loevinger）。
理解自我发展将帮助志愿者管理者理解那些在某个阶段稳定下来的志愿者，并为他们提供支持。管理者也将更好地理解处于过渡期并需要适当挑战以帮助其发展过程的志愿者。这些支持和挑战可以采取多种不同形式。
培训
当然，不可能所有志愿者的培训情况都完全适合他/她的自我阶段。但在规划可用的在职培训和教育类型以支持或挑战在职志愿者时，通过承认不同类型的学习体验适合不同的自我阶段，将取得更大的成功。
例如，成人学习的一个著名理论——成人教育学——包括一个前提，即成人学习最好在教师/培训师扮演“促进者”而非“知识给予者”角色的情境中进行。除非必要，否则强烈不鼓励讲座模式。自学和自我评估是重要的教学方法。然而，自我发展理论表明，处于自我保护或顺从阶段的成人学习者/志愿者会将培训师视为外部权威，是预包装或高度结构化信息的呈现者。处于更高阶段的志愿者将受益于以讨论小组或自学形式进行的培训，培训师充当资源人。
任何培训活动中的志愿者群体都可能包括不同自我阶段的代表。这将不允许培训设计完全适合每个个体，期望这是可能的也是不现实的。关键是志愿者培训师应熟悉不同的自我阶段，并根据自我阶段考虑志愿者的培训需求。这可能意味着提供多种培训机会，以便提供适合不同类型志愿者参与的学习情境。
管理策略
管理技术也应因志愿者个体而异。将所有志愿者团队成员视为相同“类型”的志愿者，就像根据职位头衔看待所有有偿员工（无论是“秘书”还是“执行董事”）一样不合理。不同自我阶段的志愿者（以及有偿员工）有不同的需求；监督支持和挑战因阶段而异。
处于自主阶段的志愿者是一个内省的人，擅长独自工作，不喜欢肤浅的团体活动，并尊重人本身，在反映权威性、自我保护风格的僵化组织规则和制度中会感到困难。事实上，这种冲突可能过于极端，以至于志愿者无法以任何身份工作。同样，顺从阶段的志愿者关心给“重要他人”（如主管）留下深刻印象，并强烈认为应遵循他人制定的规则和程序，如果被要求担任决策委员会代表，将需要管理者的强力支持。没有这种支持和鼓励参与，这位志愿者很可能会跟随委员会领导的声音。
再次考虑前面描述的Liz的例子，青年团体志愿者领导者。当被选为关键领导者时，她处于顺从阶段。她的持续发展和随后向下一自我阶段的过渡通过几种方式实现。当被要求参加关键领导者项目时，她接受的动机是希望给长期合作的专业人员留下深刻印象，并获得同行领导者的认可。然而，该项目通过发展她的成就感、迫使她在项目中设定目标、承担风险和获得自信来挑战她进入过渡。这很大程度上仅因她的志愿者管理者的持续强力鼓励才得以实现。
结论
自我发展理论为理解志愿者动机增添了新维度。这种更全面的理解考虑了发展过渡和志愿者相应的动机变化，可以帮助志愿者管理者创造一个工作情境，包括在职培训机会，支持处于不同自我发展阶段的志愿者，并在适当时促进志愿者的持续发展。
我们不能为志愿者提供与有偿员工相同的福利和激励。我们可以提供一种虽然无形但无价的福利——个人发展的机会。
文章概要
本文探讨了自我发展理论在志愿者管理中的应用，分析了传统动机理论（如马斯洛需求层次、赫茨伯格激励-保健理论、McClelland和Atkinson的成就-权力-归属需求理论）的局限性，并引入Loevinger的自我发展阶段理论作为更全面的理解框架。文章通过具体案例（如Ray、Alice、Liz、Robert、Tim、Sarah）说明不同自我阶段（如自我保护、顺从、自我意识、尽责、个人主义、自主阶段）志愿者的特征和动机变化，强调志愿者管理者需根据志愿者的自我发展阶段提供差异化的培训和支持，以促进志愿者的个人发展和持续参与。文章指出，自我发展理论有助于管理者理解志愿者动机的深层原因和变化，从而优化管理策略，提升志愿者体验和项目效果。
高德明老师的评价
用12岁初中生可以听懂的语音来重复翻译的内容
这篇文章讲的是志愿者管理，就是怎么帮助那些免费帮忙的人做得更好、更开心。它说，志愿者来帮忙的原因可能一开始和后来不一样，比如有人刚开始是想交朋友，后来可能更想做出成绩。文章介绍了一个叫“自我发展”的理论，就像打游戏升级一样，每个人有不同的“级别”，比如“自我保护级”的人可能不太信任别人，“顺从级”的人喜欢按规则做事，“尽责级”的人想做好每件事。管理者需要知道志愿者在哪个级别，然后给他们合适的任务和培训，这样他们才能继续帮忙并成长。文章还举了几个例子，比如Ray在医院用权力控制别人，Alice在博物馆想让大家喜欢她，Liz通过培训变得更自信。总之，理解志愿者的“级别”能帮助管理者更好地支持他们，让他们在帮忙的同时也发展自己。
TA沟通分析心理学理论评价
从TA沟通分析心理学理论的角度来看，这篇文章深入探讨了成人自我状态在社区服务和志愿者工作中的角色，与TA理论中的“成人自我状态”概念高度契合。TA理论强调个体在沟通中可能处于父母自我状态、成人自我状态或儿童自我状态，而本文的自我发展阶段理论（如Loevinger的模型）可以视为对成人自我状态的细化和发展性描述。例如，自我保护阶段可能对应TA中儿童自我状态的适应部分，顺从阶段可能反映父母自我状态的规则内化，而自主阶段则体现了成熟的成人自我状态，能够理性决策并尊重他人。文章通过案例展示了不同自我阶段志愿者的沟通模式，如Ray的操纵性行为（可能源于儿童自我状态的恐惧）和Sarah的尊重与敏感（体现成人自我状态的整合），这有助于管理者应用TA理论识别和回应志愿者的沟通需求。TA理论中的“脚本分析”和“游戏”概念也可用于理解志愿者动机变化，例如Liz从顺从到尽责的过渡可能涉及脚本重写，减少“取悦他人”的游戏，转向更自主的成就追求。整体上，文章为TA理论在非营利组织的实践提供了实证支持，强调管理者需培养对志愿者自我状态的觉察，以促进健康沟通和持续参与。
在实践上可以应用的领域和可以解决人们的十个问题
在实践上，自我发展理论在志愿者管理中的应用可扩展到多个领域，包括社区服务、非营利组织管理、教育培训、职场发展和个人成长。基于TA沟通分析心理学理论，它可以解决人们的以下十个问题：1. 帮助志愿者识别自己的自我状态，提升自我觉察，减少沟通冲突；2. 支持管理者根据志愿者的自我阶段设计个性化任务，增强参与感和满意度；3. 促进志愿者从儿童自我状态（如依赖或叛逆）向成人自我状态过渡，培养责任感和自主性；4. 减少组织中的“游戏”行为，如权力斗争或消极对抗，营造积极合作氛围；5. 通过培训适应不同自我阶段，提高学习效果和技能发展；6. 帮助志愿者处理脚本限制，如“我必须取悦他人”或“我不能信任别人”，鼓励更健康的沟通模式；7. 支持团队建设，根据成员自我状态分配角色，优化协作效率；8. 提升志愿者的情绪调节能力，从父母自我状态的批评转向成人自我状态的理解；9. 促进个人发展，通过志愿服务实现自我阶段升级，如从顺从到尽责；10. 增强组织韧性，通过理解志愿者动机变化，减少流失率并提升长期参与。