英文原文
Applied Transactional Analysis in Music Education: Naturally Occurring Teacher Ego State Behaviours and Their Effect on Student Motivation
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of teacher behaviour on student motivation during teacher-pupil interaction in music education. Observations of communication between music teachers and their students were made by the author from the perspective of Transactional Analysis. The students who participated were between 7 and 12 years old, and there were 7 adult teacher participants. Naturally occurring ego-state behaviour in these teachers during interactions with their students was observed and recorded with the intention of assessing the impact on student motivation. The hypothesis was that the effects of teacher behaviour that manifests as Adult, Nurturing Parent, and Free Child ego states significantly increases student motivation. The results of the study suggest that this hypothesis is valid.
Introduction
As any instructor would, a music teacher attempts to teach children with the best possible techniques and in the most encouraging way to engage students in the process of learning, with the hope of achieving optimal results. This approach to teaching most certainly benefits from effective communication, and teachers play a crucial role in improving the art of communicating with students. According to Flaro (1979), one of the critical factors related to teacher effectiveness is “teacher behavioural transactions” with the student. Webb (1971) states: “The way a teacher behaves, not what he knows, may be the most important issue in the transmission of the teaching-learning exchange. The psychological behaviour and the quality of how the teacher relates to the child is perhaps the most important basis for the learning attitude held by the child.” (p. 455).
Gage (1972) described four factors as important and more readily observed in successful teachers, when compared to others. Grant (2004) paraphrased these as " ... They are warm: They are accepting and supportive. ... They are enthusiastic: about teaching, about the subject, and about their students. ... They use indirect/discovery learning methods: They allow students to find things out of themselves ... They have a high level of cognitive organization: they know the subject matter well." (p.273).
One of the important and fundamental questions that need to be addressed at the beginning of this research is: What are student's needs or expectations from their teachers? Students need good communication. They need to receive a feeling of confidence from teachers, which also requires respect and encouragement throughout the process of education. All of those will be present when teachers and students develop a strong bond of communication. In this research, the author observed that based on his observations, many times teachers talk about their concerns related to a lack of motivation among their students. Teachers describe how they talk with poorly motivated students in this way: “We advise them; we encourage them to practise; we talk with their parents.” They say that sometimes these work, and sometimes they do not. Thinking deeply on these approaches to improving motivation used by teachers, in this respect, a few questions arose, such as: “When teachers advise or encourage their students, what kind of words, what tone of voice, and what facial expressions do they use?” These questions led the author to seek out a more scientific way of analysing communication, to gain a new perspective on interactions between teachers and students. In this process, the author discovered Transactional Analysis (TA), and thought it might serve as an effective approach to improving communication between teachers and students.
Learning about TA was an opportunity to gain new insights into communication and inter-personal transactions. It introduced new approaches for analysing communication between people, such as understanding the different “ego states” in which a person may be in when he or she communicates. It became evident that this kind of approach might be applicable to music education. Surprisingly, very little research has been carried out in music psychology which analyses teacher-pupil communication from the perspective of TA. In fact, there is only one study that looks at music psychology from the perspective of TA. That study, designed by Thomas and Judith Kruse (1994), had a different objective from this one.
TA may offer a valuable approach for anyone who wants to assess behaviour with the intention of improving interpersonal communication. Effective communication between teachers and students is an important factor for increasing student motivation in the process of education. The aim of this study is to investigate the value of TA in understanding teacher/student communication. To assess its impact in a measurable way, the author used the approach of observing the various ego states of teachers during their interactions with students, and the effect of these on student motivation.
Research
Research in Music Psychology from the Perspective of TA
TA is a theory of communication. Knowing about TA can be useful for improving communication skills. There is a body of research that supports the idea that in the majority of instances where experts successfully used TA, it was for improving communications skills and developing relationship among people. Whether in a company, a school, a hospital, or other setting, wherever there is need for understanding individuals, TA has been shown to be effective. However, research relative to teaching and specifically to teaching music is limited.
Kruse and Kruse (1994) used TA game theory to solve problems existing among the triad of teachers, students, and parents involved in the Suzuki (1983) Method of stringed instrument instruction. Shinichi Suzuki, Japanese violinist and teacher, was one of the more innovative and influential pedagogues of the twentieth century. He created a new method of music instruction based on simple observation that all children learn to speak their native language with ease through listening and repetition. According to observations made by Kruse and Kruse, sometimes the Suzuki triad is dysfunctional, does not work well, and leads to confusion, frustration and problems in teacher, parent and student interactions. They also investigated the problems which occurred within the Suzuki teaching triad from the perspective of TA by using Berne's (1964) game theory and the drama triangle (Karpman, 1968). (Cited by Le Guernic, 2004). By using these TA tools, Kruse and Kruse found solutions for problems that occurred during the process of teaching.
Rajan and Chacko (2012) found positive effects of TA tools on creating new teaching styles among teachers, as well as improving relationships with students. In their study, they had an experienced trainer hold a basic TA training course for the teachers. The results showed that the practice of ego state awareness helps teachers to improve self-awareness. They described their results in this way: "This awareness in turn is helping teachers to become aware of their own and students’ behaviour in different situations and makes (sic) appropriate modifications. This in turn helps them to practise new teaching styles and improve teacher student relationships." (p.7) Additionally, Rajan and Chacko showed how improving teacher-student relationship caused improvement in the educational environment that is vital for promoting student learning.
According to the research by Garrison and Fischer (1978), teaching TA concepts to students in third and sixth grade classrooms led to improved communication. Students used the Parent, Child, Adult model of ego states to solve to internal conflicts, as well as those between themselves and others. Garrison and Fischer demonstrated an example in this way: "students would express their Child 'want',’ their Parent ‘should,’ and then use their Adult to solve inner conflicts between the two ego states. In one specific situation, a student's Child wanted to go out and play after school but his Parent reminded him of homework that should be completed. The student decided to play for a shorter period of time and then come inside to complete his homework." (p. 241).
Myrow (1978) designed research to investigate the role of TA in developing teachers, both personally and professionally. The research included a university course for teachers and reports on teachers' evaluations of their experiences. Results indicated a noticeable influence from TA, including some teachers being less negative and critical and more nurturing of students, while others found themselves to be more aware of children’s feelings, listening more attentively, and even becoming more playful with their own children. Some reported being more positive, less duplicative, and more open and direct in their behaviour towards their students. Overall, the results of this research showed that teachers’ awareness of TA concepts helped them to improve relationship with friends, students and families.
Temple (1999) proposed the term Functional Fluency to describe the ability that an educator can develop to respond flexibly and effectively by using a range of ego states, and to increase the intimacy with students in order to decrease the likelihood of unhealthy symbiotic transactions. She also believed developing self-awareness in ego state terms is particularly suitable for teachers. She wrote: "Increased autonomy raises a teacher's energy and motivation, creativity, and effectiveness. Autonomy also brings enhanced awareness (sensitivity, rationality, objectivity, realism, and 'with-it-ness'), enhanced spontaneity (choice, range, and fluency of behavioural options, and freedom of self-expression), and enhanced capacity for intimacy (willingness to be candid, open and direct, congruent, empathic, and affectionate)." (p.172).
According to an Educational Transactional Analysis approach mentioned by Tafoya (2004), teacher-student relationships should be based on the 'I'm OK, You're OK' life position. Actually, the learning process influenced by this TA principle provides an atmosphere of respect and equality for both teacher and student, in which teachers are entrusted to create the best teaching to develop potential of their students. Tafoya depicted an example of the educators' job through the process of learning in this way: "In transactional analysis terms, the teacher can create a situation (Nurturing Parent) in which students feel safe and respected in an environment that promotes the joy of learning through their Natural Child; in such circumstances, students are much more likely to be free of tension or anxiety. Grown-ups, especially, often wear rigid masks (Critical Parent) that cover the creative part of the personality and thus limit the learning process. It is the teacher's job to arrange the learning situation so as to remove such defenses without stimulating resistance." (p. 329).
Also in the area of teacher training, Lerkkanen and Temple (2004) pointed out the importance of TA as a tool for increasing student teachers' self-awareness and personal growth. Additionally, they demonstrated the role of TA in making an effective contribution to teacher education. Their research indicated that TA as a practical approach to educational psychology can explain and describe human behaviour and relationships in a manner useful for teachers' psychological development. From their point of view, TA can be an effective source of support for teachers in their personal and professional development. TA plays a crucial role in building positive relationships that underpin teacher effectiveness in the classroom.
Ego States
Flaro (1979) believed that ego states provide an opportunity for teachers to be aware of how their positive or negative aspects of behaviour can impact the classroom environment or student behaviour. In fact, achieving awareness of their ego states’ negative or positive aspects helps teachers to become more aware of the positive or negative aspects of their total personality. He wrote that teachers might benefit from clarification of both aspects of Critical Parent. The Protective or positive aspects of this ego state manifest in such behaviours as being firm, direct, guiding, commanding and telling. This dimension of Critical Parent ego state communicates messages such as ‘you can be a good musician, practise well and do things carefully’. On the other hand, the negative aspects of Critical Parent or Persecuting Critical Parent admonishes, orders, threatens, blames and ridicules. This aspect of Critical Parent communicates injunctive and attributional messages such as 'You do not have enough intelligence for doing this exercise.''
According to Flaro, these messages communicated from Persecuting Critical Parent destroy the process of student growth rather than enhancing it. In fact, teachers using the negative aspects of ego state can create a negative environment which will invite students into negative, rebellious or compliant behaviours, whereas using positive ego states can create a positive environment which will invite students into learning, fun, spontaneity, curiosity and growth. In this research, he investigated the behaviour of two high school teachers, which he named Jim Myrgatroid and Steve Medusa, during the process of teaching. Flaro explains Jim’s personality as a combination of enthusiasm, care, energy, discipline, and a sense of humour that show through his actions in class, while Steve's personality is depressed, angry and aloof, and his behaviour towards his students is brusque, uncaring, tyrannical and at times abusive.
Flaro analysed the impact of teachers' behaviour on students, and understood the harmony of responses from Adult, Free Child, Nurturing Parent and Critical Parent in the case of Jim. From Flaro’s point of view, Jim could create an environment in which students felt free from any fear, catastrophic events, and anxiety. Because of the positive environment in this classroom, learning is fun for students. Students have permission to think, to do things well, to learn, and solve their own problems and enjoy themselves. However, in Steve's classroom students were under constant threat. Steve's inconsistencies and irregular behaviour created an environment in which students had to be on constant guard. Flaro explained: "... the students' perpetual catastrophic and anticipatory expectations can only inhibit learning, breed resentment and escalate game playing." (p. 198). In fact