英文原文
Andragogy and Technology: Integrating Adult Learning Theory As We Teach With Technology
Dolores Fidishun, Ed.D.
Head Librarian
Penn State Great Valley School of Graduate Professional Studies
30 E. Swedesford Rd.
Malvern, PA 19355
Abstract
Introducing technology into the curriculum means more than just “making it work.” The principles of adult learning theory can be used in the design of technology-based instruction to make it more effective. Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy allows teacher/facilitators to structure lessons which are part of a relevant learning environment for adult students.
Introduction
Higher education has given priority to the integration of technology into the curriculum. As this has occurred, institutions are faced with the many issues that surround making the lessons succeed technologically. Faculty must spend time learning how to use the technology and ensuring that adequate institutional support is present to make the technology work. It is, therefore, easy for the instructional design of such curricula to be put on the side while we get technology issues “under control.” Faculty need to focus on learning theory in the design of instructional technology so that they can create lessons that are not only technology-effective but that are meaningful from the learner’s standpoint. Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy outlines effective methodologies for adult learning. When this theory is integrated into the design of technology-based learning environments it is possible to create lessons that not only serve the needs of students to use the latest technology but also focus on their requirements as an adult. Andragogy includes ideas such as an adult’s readiness to learn, the role of the learner’s experiences, the faculty member as a facilitator of learning, an adult’s orientation to learning, and the learner’s self concept.
What is Andragogy?
Andragogy is a set of assumptions about how adults learn. Its roots can be traced back to Alexander Kapp, a German grammar teacher who used it to describe Plato’s educational theory (Knowles, Holton, and Swanson 1998, 59). It appeared again in 1921 when another German, Social Scientist, Eugen Rosenstock claimed that “adult education required special teachers, special methods, and a special philosophy.” (Knowles, Holton, and Swanson 1998, 59) There is evidence that discussion of andragogy continued in Europe until Dusan Savicevic, a Yugoslavian adult educator, first discussed the concept in the United States. Malcolm Knowles heard about the term and in 1968 used it in an article in Adult Leadership. From that point on, Knowles has become known as the principle expert on andragogy although numerous adult educators including Brookfield (1986), Mezirow (1991), Lawler (1991) and Merriam (1999) have addressed the concept and/or discussed how it can be used to facilitate adult learning.
Technology and the Assumptions of Andragogy
Knowles, Holton and Swanson (1998) discuss six assumptions of andragogy. Following are expanded definitions of those assumptions with their implications for technology-based instruction:
• The Learner’s Need to Know
Adults need to know why they should learn something. Under the more standard pedagogical model it is assumed that the student will simply learn what they are told. Adults, however, are used to understanding what they do in life. They want to know the reason they need to learn something or how it will benefit them. This may be accomplished before students even engage technology, such as if a Spanish class is required to fill a language elective to complete a degree, however, it is wise for the faculty member to help students understand how what they will learn will be of use to them in the future. The required Spanish language lessons will be more affective if the student feels that it will increase her/his ability to understand a bilingual colleague on the job.
One way to help students see the value of the lessons is to ask the student, either online or in an initial face-to-face meeting, to do some reflection on what they expect to learn, how they might use it in the future or how it will help them to meet their goals. Patricia Lawler (1991, 36) suggests that these goals and expectations can be used throughout the program to reinforce the importance of learning activities. The design of technology-based lessons can incorporate not only the students’ original reflections but can solicit feedback about the relevance of the ongoing learning process throughout the course. It is incumbent upon the instructor to review these reflections and to adjust the technology or suggest an individual lesson structure to more effectively meet student needs.
• The Learner’s Self-concept
Knowles, Holton, and Swanson emphasize that “adults resent and resist situations in which they feel others are imposing their wills on them.” (1998, 65) In spite of their need for autonomy, previous schooling has made them dependent learners. It is the job of the adult educator to move adult students away from their old habits and into new patterns of learning where they become self-directed, taking responsibility for their own learning and the direction it takes. Technology is a perfect path for the facilitation of self-direction. The ultimate ability of initiatives such as web-based learning to be non-linear allows an adult to follow the path that most appropriately reflects their need to learn. It becomes extremely important for those who are designing technology-based adult learning to use all of the capabilities of the technology including branching, the ability to skip sections a student already understands, and multiple forms of presentation of material which can assist people with various learning styles. All of these can be used to permit students to follow a path of learning that most appropriately suits them.
There is, however, one final piece that needs to be added when students are learning with technology. There must be some way to help learners who are still moving into the self-directed mode. Those learners who are new to adult education or who for some reason have not experienced the ability to be self-directed learners in the past need a structure which will help them to grow. Particular attention should be given to students who may not want to spend time outside of a classroom situation; who prefer to be spoon-fed material during a regularly scheduled session. This type of student may exhibit negative opinions of having to use technology as the only means of learning as they will need to take responsibility and direct their own learning. The instructor must find ways to move these learners into self-direction by giving them short, directed, concrete online tasks that provide the most “learning for the experience” to make these adults see the relevancy of online learning.
It is also important that self-directedness not be confused with self-motivation. Although a student may be motivated to take a course, they may not be self-directed enough to feel comfortable choosing instructional modules in an online course or creating their own structured environment to learn in a web-based course.
Encouraging self-directedness may also take the form of additional instructor contact in the beginning stages of the class or could be facilitated by having students do technology-based modules within a traditional class before they move to a complete course based in technology.
• The Role of the Learner’s Experience
Adults have had a lifetime of experiences. These make adult learners more heterogeneous than younger learners and also provides an additional base of knowledge that can and should be used in the classroom or technology-based learning experience. Adults want to use what they know and want to be acknowledged for having that knowledge. The design of technology-based instruction must include opportunities for learners to use their knowledge and experience. Case studies, reflective activities, group projects that call upon the expertise of group members and lab experiments are examples of the type of learning activities which will facilitate the use of learners’ already acquired expertise.
An important corollary to the experience that adults bring with them is the association of their experiences with who they are. Their self-identity including habits and biases are determined from their experience. It is for this reason that those developing technology-based instruction for adult learners need to create opportunities for what Jack Mezirow calls “reflective learning.” (1991, 6) As Mezirow states, “reflective learning involves assessment or reassessment of assumptions” (1991, 6) and “reflective learning becomes transformative whenever assumptions or premises are found to be distorting, inauthentic or otherwise invalid.” (1991, 6) Reflective learning activities can assist students in examining their biases and habits and move them toward a new understanding of information presented. Using web-based or other technologies to have students reflect on learning activities or to put themselves in a different character in a case study or scenario may cause adults to reevaluate already learned information or patterns.
• A Student’s Readiness to Learn
Adults become ready to learn something when, as Knowles explained, “they experience a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems.” (1980, 44) It is important that lessons developed in technology-based opportunities should, where possible, be concrete and relate to students’ needs and future goals. These may be adapted from the goals of the course or learning program but can also grow out to the requests for student expectations that were mentioned earlier. In addition, an instructor can encourage students’ readiness by designing experiences which simulate situations where the student will encounter a need for the knowledge or skill presented. Students in a personnel management course may not see the need for learning about the Family and Medical Leave Act but an interactive role play that puts students in the place of a manager who must deal with an employee’s request for leave due to a child’s illness will help them see how an understanding of the topic will benefit them in the future.
• The Student’s Orientation to Learning
Adults are life, task or problem-centered in their orientation to learning. They want to see how what they are learning will apply to their life, a task they need to perform, or to solving a problem. Technology-based instruction will be more effective if it uses real-life examples or situations that adult learners may encounter in their life or on the job. Allowing flexibility in the design of a lesson will permit student input on issues that need to be addressed in a class. If students can bring real-life examples of school discipline challenges to a chat session in an online course on behavior management they will be anxious to participate and gain the practical experience which will help them to do better at their job.
• Students’ Motivation to Learn
While adult learners may respond to external motivators, internal priorities are more important. Incentives such as increased job satisfaction, self-esteem and quality of life are important in giving adults a reason to learn. If any of these can be related as part of technology-based instruction adults will respond more positively. Activities that build students’ self-esteem, or sense of accomplishment through, for example, the completion of goals or modules that can be checked off in a sequence, may help motivate completion of a longer lesson. In addition, student’s input into the development of lessons or in the prioritization of topics covered can help students to take ownership of the learning process.
Conclusion
To facilitate the use of andragogy while teaching with technology we must use technology to its fullest. Arguments for the use of technology many times include statements about its flexibility and the ability of the learner to move through lessons any time, anywhere, and at their own pace. These arguments also include logical explanations of how a learner may adapt the lessons or material to cover what they need to learn and eliminate the material that is not appropriate or that they have already learned. To adapt to the needs of adult students, these definitions of technology-based learning must be utilized to make its design interactive, learner-centered and to facilitate self-direction in learners.
Educators who are using adult education concepts in the development of their lessons must also become facilitators of learning. They must structure student input into their design and create technology-based lessons which can easily be adapted to make the presentation of topics relevant to those they teach.
If these guidelines are followed, the instruction that is developed will be not only technologically workable but also effective from a learner’s perspective.
中文翻译
成人教育学与技术：在教学中整合成人学习理论
Dolores Fidishun, Ed.D.
图书馆馆长
宾夕法尼亚州立大学大峡谷研究生专业研究学院
30 E. Swedesford Rd.
Malvern, PA 19355
摘要
将技术引入课程不仅仅意味着“让它工作”。成人学习理论的原则可用于设计基于技术的教学，使其更有效。马尔科姆·诺尔斯的成人教育学理论允许教师/促进者构建课程，这些课程是成人学生相关学习环境的一部分。
引言
高等教育优先考虑将技术整合到课程中。随着这一趋势的出现，机构面临着许多围绕使课程在技术上成功的问题。教师必须花时间学习如何使用技术，并确保有足够的机构支持使技术工作。因此，在我们将技术问题“控制住”的同时，这类课程的教学设计很容易被搁置一边。教师需要在教学设计中关注学习理论，以便他们能够创建不仅技术有效，而且从学习者角度有意义的课程。马尔科姆·诺尔斯的成人教育学理论概述了成人学习的有效方法。当这一理论整合到基于技术的学习环境设计中时，就有可能创建不仅满足学生使用最新技术的需求，而且关注他们作为成人需求的课程。成人教育学包括诸如成人的学习准备、学习者经验的作用、教师作为学习促进者、成人的学习导向以及学习者的自我概念等理念。
什么是成人教育学？
成人教育学是一套关于成人如何学习的假设。其根源可以追溯到亚历山大·卡普，一位德国语法教师，他用它来描述柏拉图的教育理论（诺尔斯、霍尔顿和斯旺森，1998年，第59页）。它在1921年再次出现，当时另一位德国社会科学家尤金·罗森斯托克声称“成人教育需要特殊的教师、特殊的方法和特殊的哲学。”（诺尔斯、霍尔顿和斯旺森，1998年，第59页）有证据表明，成人教育学的讨论在欧洲持续进行，直到南斯拉夫成人教育者杜桑·萨维切维奇首次在美国讨论这一概念。马尔科姆·诺尔斯听说了这个术语，并在1968年将其用于《成人领导力》杂志的一篇文章中。从那时起，诺尔斯已成为成人教育学的主要专家，尽管许多成人教育者包括布鲁克菲尔德（1986年）、梅兹罗（1991年）、劳勒（1991年）和梅里亚姆（1999年）都探讨了这一概念和/或讨论了如何用它来促进成人学习。
技术与成人教育学的假设
诺尔斯、霍尔顿和斯旺森（1998年）讨论了成人教育学的六个假设。以下是这些假设的扩展定义及其对基于技术教学的影响：
• 学习者需要知道
成人需要知道为什么他们应该学习某些东西。在更标准的教学模式下，假设学生只会学习被告知的内容。然而，成人习惯于理解他们在生活中所做的事情。他们想知道需要学习某些东西的原因或它将如何使他们受益。这可以在学生甚至接触技术之前完成，例如，如果西班牙语课程是完成学位所需的语言选修课，但教师明智地帮助学生理解他们将学习的内容如何在未来对他们有用。如果学生觉得它将提高她/他在工作中理解双语同事的能力，那么所需的西班牙语课程将更有效。
帮助学生看到课程价值的一种方法是要求学生在在线或初次面对面会议中反思他们期望学习什么、他们可能如何在未来使用它或它将如何帮助他们实现目标。帕特里夏·劳勒（1991年，第36页）建议，这些目标和期望可以在整个项目中用于强化学习活动的重要性。基于技术的课程设计不仅可以纳入学生最初的反思，还可以在整个课程中征求关于持续学习过程相关性的反馈。教师有责任审查这些反思，并调整技术或建议个别课程结构，以更有效地满足学生需求。
• 学习者的自我概念
诺尔斯、霍尔顿和斯旺森强调，“成人憎恨和抵制那些他们觉得别人在强加意志于他们的情境。”（1998年，第65页）尽管他们需要自主性，但以前的学校教育使他们成为依赖型学习者。成人教育者的工作是让成人学生摆脱旧习惯，进入新的学习模式，使他们成为自我导向的，对自己的学习及其方向负责。技术是促进自我导向的完美途径。诸如基于网络的学习等倡议的最终非线性能力允许成人遵循最恰当地反映他们学习需求的路径。对于那些设计基于技术的成人学习的人来说，利用技术的所有能力变得极其重要，包括分支、跳过学生已经理解的部分的能力，以及多种材料呈现形式，这些可以帮助具有不同学习风格的人。所有这些都可以用于允许学生遵循最适合他们的学习路径。
然而，当学生使用技术学习时，还需要添加一个最终部分。必须有某种方式帮助那些仍在进入自我导向模式的学习者。那些对成人教育不熟悉或由于某种原因过去没有体验过自我导向学习能力的学习者需要一个结构来帮助他们成长。应特别关注那些可能不想在课堂情境外花时间的学生；他们更喜欢在定期安排的课程中被“喂食”材料。这类学生可能对必须使用技术作为唯一学习手段表现出负面意见，因为他们需要承担责任并指导自己的学习。教师必须找到方法将这些学习者带入自我导向，通过给他们短小、有指导、具体的在线任务，提供最多的“经验学习”，使这些成人看到在线学习的相关性。
同样重要的是，不要将自我导向与自我激励混淆。尽管学生可能有动力参加课程，但他们可能不够自我导向，以至于在选择在线课程中的教学模块或在基于网络的课程中创建自己的结构化学习环境时感到不舒服。
鼓励自我导向也可能采取在课程初期增加教师联系的形式，或者通过让学生在传统课堂中完成基于技术的模块，然后再转向完全基于技术的课程来促进。
• 学习者经验的作用
成人有一生的经验。这使得成人学习者比年轻学习者更加多样化，并提供了一个额外的知识基础，可以在课堂或基于技术的学习体验中使用。成人希望使用他们所知道的，并希望因拥有这些知识而得到认可。基于技术的教学设计必须包括学习者使用其知识和经验的机会。案例研究、反思活动、利用小组成员专业知识的团体项目和实验室实验是促进学习者使用已获得专业知识的学习活动类型的例子。
成人带来的经验的一个重要推论是他们的经验与他们的身份相关联。他们的自我认同，包括习惯和偏见，是由他们的经验决定的。因此，那些为成人学习者开发基于技术教学的人需要创造机会进行杰克·梅兹罗所称的“反思学习”。（1991年，第6页）正如梅兹罗所说，“反思学习涉及对假设的评估或重新评估”（1991年，第6页），并且“每当假设或前提被发现是扭曲的、不真实的或其他无效时，反思学习就变得具有变革性。”（1991年，第6页）反思学习活动可以帮助学生检查他们的偏见和习惯，并引导他们走向对呈现信息的新理解。使用基于网络或其他技术让学生反思学习活动，或在案例研究或情境中将自己置于不同角色，可能导致成人重新评估已经学习的信息或模式。
• 学生的学习准备
成人准备好学习某些东西时，正如诺尔斯解释的那样，“他们体验到需要学习它以更满意地应对现实生活中的任务或问题。”（1980年，第44页）重要的是，在基于技术的机会中开发的课程应尽可能具体，并与学生的需求和未来目标相关。这些可以从课程或学习计划的目标中调整，但也可以从之前提到的学生期望请求中发展出来。此外，教师可以通过设计模拟学生将遇到所需知识或技能的情境的经验来鼓励学生的准备。人事管理课程的学生可能看不到学习《家庭和医疗休假法》的必要性，但一个互动角色扮演，将学生置于必须处理员工因孩子生病请假请求的经理位置，将帮助他们看到理解该主题如何在未来使他们受益。
• 学生的学习导向
成人在学习导向上以生活、任务或问题为中心。他们想看到他们正在学习的东西将如何应用于他们的生活、他们需要执行的任务或解决问题。基于技术的教学如果使用成人学习者在生活中或工作中可能遇到的真实例子或情境，将更有效。允许课程设计的灵活性将允许学生对需要在课堂上解决的问题提供输入。如果学生可以将学校纪律挑战的真实例子带到在线行为管理课程的聊天会话中，他们将渴望参与并获得实践经验，这将帮助他们在工作中做得更好。
• 学生的学习动机
虽然成人学习者可能对外部激励因素有反应，但内部优先事项更重要。诸如增加工作满意度、自尊和生活质量等激励因素在给成人学习理由方面很重要。如果这些中的任何一个可以作为基于技术教学的一部分相关，成人将更积极地响应。建立学生自尊或成就感的活动，例如通过完成目标或可以按顺序勾选的模块，可能有助于激励完成较长的课程。此外，学生对课程开发或涵盖主题优先级的输入可以帮助学生掌握学习过程的所有权。
结论
为了在教学中促进成人教育学的使用，我们必须充分利用技术。使用技术的论点通常包括关于其灵活性以及学习者能够随时随地、以自己的节奏学习课程的陈述。这些论点还包括逻辑解释，说明学习者如何调整课程或材料以涵盖他们需要学习的内容，并消除不合适或他们已经学过的材料。为了适应成人学生的需求，这些基于技术学习的定义必须被用来使其设计互动、以学习者为中心，并促进学习者的自我导向。
在课程开发中使用成人教育概念的教师也必须成为学习的促进者。他们必须将学生输入纳入设计，并创建易于调整的基于技术的课程，以使主题呈现与所教学生相关。
如果遵循这些指导方针，开发的课程不仅技术上可行，而且从学习者角度来看是有效的。
文章概要
本文探讨了成人教育学与技术在课堂教育中的整合，强调将马尔科姆·诺尔斯的成人学习理论应用于基于技术的教学设计，以提升成人学习效果。文章概述了成人教育学的六个核心假设，包括学习者的需求、自我概念、经验作用、学习准备、学习导向和动机，并分析了这些假设如何通过技术实现，如个性化学习路径、反思活动和真实情境模拟。结合关键词“成人自我状态在教育技术整合中”，文章指出技术可以促进成人学习者的自主性和自我导向，使教育更互动和以学习者为中心。
高德明老师的评价
用12岁初中生可以听懂的语音来重复翻译的内容：这篇文章讲的是大人学习时怎么用电脑和网络来帮忙。大人和小孩不一样，他们有自己的想法和经验，所以老师要用特别的方法教他们。比如，大人想知道为什么学这个，电脑可以让他们自己选择学什么和怎么学，就像玩游戏一样可以跳过已经会的部分。大人还可以用电脑分享自己的经验，解决真实的问题，这样学习更有趣和有用。
TA沟通分析心理学理论评价：从TA沟通分析心理学角度看，这篇文章体现了成人自我状态在教育技术整合中的积极应用。成人自我状态以理性、客观和适应为特征，文章强调成人学习者需要自主决策和基于经验的学习，这符合成人自我状态的功能。技术作为工具，促进了成人学习者的自我导向和反思，帮助他们从依赖型学习者转向自我管理，减少了父母自我状态或儿童自我状态的干扰，增强了学习过程中的成人自我状态主导，从而提升教育效果。
在实践上可以应用的领域和可以解决人们的十个问题：在实践上，这篇文章的应用领域包括成人教育、职业培训、在线课程设计和企业学习系统。它可以解决人们的十个问题：1. 成人学习动力不足，通过技术提供个性化激励；2. 学习内容不相关，利用真实情境模拟增强实用性；3. 学习过程被动，技术促进自主选择和反思；4. 经验未被充分利用，通过案例研究和团体活动整合；5. 学习时间不灵活，在线平台支持随时随地学习；6. 自我导向能力弱，技术提供结构化引导；7. 学习效果评估困难，反馈机制帮助调整；8. 跨文化沟通障碍，技术辅助语言学习；9. 工作与学习冲突，异步学习模式适应忙碌生活；10. 学习焦虑，渐进式任务建立信心。